Global inequities in cesarean section deliveries and required resources persist.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to estimate the global distribution and financial cost associated with the inequities present in the use of cesarean sections (CS) worldwide. STUDY DESIGN: We used the latest estimates on CS rates published by WHO and we adopted 10-15 % as the range of CS rates that are considered optimal for adequate use. We calculated the cost (in USD) to achieve CS rates of 10-15 % for countries that reported rates below 10 %. We also calculated the cost of CS rates in excess (>15 % and > 20 %) by estimating how much it would cost to reduce the rates to 10-15 % for each of those countries. RESULTS: 137 countries are included in this analysis with updated data on CS rates between the years 2010 and 2018. Our analysis found that 36 countries reported CS rates < 10 %, whereas 91 countries reported CS rates > 15 % (a majority of which were > 20 %); only 10 countries reported CS rates between 10 and 15 %. The cost of CS exceeding a rate of 15 % is estimated to be $9,586,952,466 including inflation and exceeding 20 % is $7.169.248.033 (USD). The cost of achieving "needed" CS among countries with CS rates < 10 % is $612,609,418 (USD). The cost of cesarean sections exceeding 15 % has increased by 313 % between 2008 and more recent years, accruing $7 billion (USD) more in surplus since 2008. The reallocation of CS funding would save the global economy $9 billion (USD). CONCLUSION: Global inequities in CS performed and associated costs have increased since 2008, resulting in a disproportionate number of resources allocated.

Twin Vaginal Deliveries in Labor Rooms: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Twin vaginal deliveries (VDs) are often performed in the operating room (OR) given the theoretical risk of conversion to cesarean delivery (CD) for the aftercoming twin. We aim to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of performing VDs for twin gestations in the labor and delivery room (LDR) versus OR. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis using a decision-analysis model that compared the costs and effectiveness of two strategies of twin deliveries undergoing a trial of labor: (1) intended delivery in the LDR and 2) delivery in the OR. Sensitivity analyses were performed to assess strength and validity of the model. Primary outcome was incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) defined as cost needed to gain 1 quality-adjusted life year (QALY). RESULTS: In the base-case scenario, where 7% of deliveries resulted in conversion to CD for twin B, attempting to deliver twins in the LDR was the most cost-effective strategy. For every QALY gained by delivering in the OR, 243,335 USD would need to be spent (ICER). In univariate sensitivity analyses, the most cost-effective strategy shifted to delivering in the OR when the following was true: (1) probability of successful VD was less than 86%, (2) probability of neonatal morbidity after emergent CD exceeded 3.5%, (3) cost of VD in an LDR exceeded 10,500 USD, (4) cost of CD was less than 10,000 USD, or (5) probability of neonatal death from emergent CD exceeded 2.8%. Assuming a willingness to pay of 100,000 USD per neonatal QALY gained, attempted VD in the LDR was cost effective in 51% of simulations in the Monte Carlo analysis. CONCLUSION: Twin VDs in the LDR are cost effective based on current neonatal outcome data, taking into account gestational age and associated morbidity. Further investigation is needed to elucidate impact of cost and outcomes on optimal utilization of resources. KEY POINTS: · Cost effectiveness of twin VDs in the LDR versus OR was assessed.. · Twin VDs in the LDR are cost effective based on current neonatal outcome data.. · Attempted VD in the LDR was cost effective in 51% of simulations in the Monte Carlo analysis..

Breech delivery in low-income settings: A systematic review of perinatal and maternal outcomes in vaginal versus cesarean breech deliveries.

Most studies comparing vaginal breech delivery (VBD) with cesarean breech delivery (CBD) have been conducted in high-income settings. It is uncertain whether these results are applicable in a low-income setting. To assess the neonatal and maternal mortality and morbidity for singleton VBD compared to CBD in low- and lower-middle-income settings,the PubMed database was searched from January 1, 2000, to January 23, 2020 (updated April 21, 2021). Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-RCTs comparing singleton VBD with singleton CBD in low- and lower-middle-income settings reporting infant mortality were selected. Two authors independently assessed papers for eligibility and risk of bias. The primary outcome was relative risk of perinatal mortality. Meta-analysis was conducted on applicable outcomes. Eight studies (one RCT, seven observational) (12 510 deliveries) were included. VBD increased perinatal mortality (relative risk [RR] 2.67, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.82-3.91; one RCT, five observational studies, 3289 women) and risk of 5-minute Apgar score below 7 (RR 3.91, 95% CI 1.90-8.04; three observational studies, 430 women) compared to CBD. There was a higher risk of hospitalization and postpartum bleeding in CBD. Most of the studies were deemed to have moderate or serious risk of bias. CBD decreases risk of perinatal mortality but increases risk of bleeding and hospitalization.

Potentially Preventable Primary Cesarean Sections in Future Placenta Accreta Spectrum.

OBJECTIVE: Prior cesarean delivery is a well-known risk factor for placenta accreta spectrum disorders. While primary cesarean section is unavoidable in some patients, in others it may not be clearly indicated. The aim of the study is to determine the proportion of patients with placenta accreta spectrum who had a potentially preventable primary cesarean section and to identify factors associated with preventable placenta accreta spectrum. STUDY DESIGN: This was a single-center retrospective cohort study of women with pathology-confirmed placenta accreta spectrum from 2007 to 2019. Primary cesarean sections were categorized as potentially preventable or unpreventable based on practice consistent with the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine "Safe Prevention of the Primary Cesarean Delivery" recommendations. Fisher's exact test and Mann-Whitney U-test were used for comparison with p <0.05 considered statistically significant. RESULTS: Seventy-two patients had pathology-confirmed placenta accreta spectrum over the course of the study period, 15 (20.8%) of whom required a cesarean hysterectomy at the time of primary cesarean section. Fifty-seven patients had placenta accreta spectrum in a pregnancy following their primary cesarean section. Of these, 29 (50.9%) were considered potentially preventable. Most were performed without clear medical indication (37.9%) or for fetal malpresentation without attempted external cephalic version (37.9%). The remainder were due to arrest of labor not meeting criteria (17.2%) and abnormal or indeterminate fetal heart patterns with documented recovery (6.9%). Of the 11 patients without clear medical indication for primary cesarean section, eight (72.7%) were patient-choice cesarean sections and three (27.3%) were for suspected fetal macrosomia with estimated fetal weights not meeting criteria for cesarean delivery. There was no difference in the incidence of potentially preventable primary cesarean sections before and after the ACOG-SMFM "Safe Prevention of the Primary Cesarean Delivery" publication (48.8 vs. 57.1%, p = 0.59). Privately insured patients were more likely to have a potentially preventable primary cesarean section than those with Medicaid (62.5 vs. 23.5%, p = 0.008) and were more likely to have a primary cesarean section without clear medical indication (81.8 vs. 18.2%, p = 0.004). CONCLUSION: Many patients with placenta accreta spectrum had a potentially preventable primary cesarean section. Most were performed without clear medical indication or for malpresentation without attempted external cephalic version, suggesting that at least a subset of placenta accreta spectrum cases may be preventable. This was particularly true for privately insured patients. These findings call for continued investigation of potentially preventable primary cesarean sections with initiatives to address concerns at the patient, provider, and hospital level. KEY POINTS: · Many patients with placenta accreta spectrum have potentially preventable primary cesarean sections.. · Privately insured patients are more likely to have potentially preventable primary cesarean sections.. · Our findings suggest that at least a subset of placenta accreta spectrum cases may be preventable..

Catastrophic expenditure and impoverishment after caesarean section in Sierra Leone: An evaluation of the free health care initiative.

BACKGROUND: Utilizing surgical services, including caesarean sections, can result in catastrophic expenditure and impoverishment. In 2010, Sierra Leone introduced the Free Health Care Initiative (FHCI), a national financial risk protection program for the most vulnerable groups. Aim of this study was to investigate catastrophic expenditure and impoverishment related to caesarean section in Sierra Leone and evaluate the impact of the FHCI. METHODS: Women who delivered by caesarean section in nine hospitals were followed up with home visits one month after surgery, and data on medical and non-medical expenditures were collected. Individual income was estimated based on household characteristics and used to determine catastrophic expenditure and impoverishment for each patient. The impact of the FHCI was assessed by comparing actual expenditure with counterfactual expenditures had the initiative not existed. RESULTS: For the 1146 patients in the study, the median expenditure was 23 (IQR 4; 56) international dollars (Int$). Patients in the poorest quintile spent a median Int$ 59 (IQR 28; 76), which was significantly more than patients in the richest quintile, who spent a median Int$ 17 (IQR 2; 38, p<0.001). Travel (32.9%) and food (28.7%) were the two largest expenses. Catastrophic expenditure was encountered by 12.0% and 4.0% (10% and 25% threshold, respectively) of the women. Without the FHCI, 66.1% and 28.8% of the women would have encountered catastrophic expenditure. CONCLUSION: Many women in Sierra Leone face catastrophic expenditure related to caesarean section, mainly through food and travel expenses, and the poor are disproportionally affected. The FHCI is effective in reducing the risk of catastrophic expenditure related to caesarean section, but many patients are still exposed to financial hardship, suggesting that additional support is needed for Sierra Leone's poorest patients.

Health service use and health system costs associated with diabetes during pregnancy in Australia.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: In the context of the rising rate of diabetes in pregnancy in Australia, this study aims to examine the health service and resource use associated with diabetes during pregnancy. METHODS AND RESULTS: This project utilised a linked administrative dataset containing health and cost data for all mothers who gave birth in Queensland, Australia between 2012 and 2015 (n = 186,789, plus their babies, n = 189,909). The association between maternal characteristics and diabetes status were compared with chi-square analyses. Multiple logistic regression produced the odds ratio of having different outcomes for women who had diabetes compared to women who did not. A two-sample t-test compared the mean number of health services accessed. Generalised linear regression produced the mean costs associated with health service use. Mothers who had diabetes during pregnancy were more likely to have their labour induced at <38 weeks gestation (OR:1.39, 95% CI:1.29-1.50); have a cesarean section (OR: 1.26, 95% CI:1.22-1.31); have a preterm birth (OR:1.24, 95%: 1.18-1.32); have their baby admitted to a Special Care Nursery (OR: 2.34, 95% CI:2.26-2.43) and a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (OR:1.25, 95%CI: 1.14-1.37). On average, mothers with diabetes access health services on more occasions during pregnancy (54.4) compared to mothers without (50.5). Total government expenditure on mothers with diabetes over the first 1000 days of the perinatal journey was significantly higher than in mothers without diabetes ($12,757 and $11,332). CONCLUSION: Overall, mothers that have diabetes in pregnancy require greater health care and resource use than mothers without diabetes in pregnancy.

Stillbirth rates, service outcomes and costs of implementing NHS England's Saving Babies' Lives care bundle in maternity units in England: A cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess implementation of the Saving Babies Lives (SBL) Care Bundle, a collection of practice recommendations in four key areas, to reduce stillbirth in England. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study of 463,630 births in 19 NHS Trusts in England using routinely collected electronic data supplemented with case note audit (n = 1,658), and surveys of service users (n = 2,085) and health care professionals (n = 1,064). The primary outcome was stillbirth rate. Outcome rates two years before and after the nominal SBL implementation date were derived as a measure of change over the implementation period. Data were collected on secondary outcomes and process outcomes which reflected implementation of the SBL care bundle. RESULTS: The total stillbirth rate, declined from 4.2 to 3.4 per 1,000 births between the two time points (adjusted Relative Risk (aRR) 0.80, 95% Confidence Interval (95% CI) 0.70 to 0.91, P<0.001). There was a contemporaneous increase in induction of labour (aRR 1.20 (95%CI 1.18-1.21), p<0.001) and emergency Caesarean section (aRR 1.10 (95%CI 1.07-1.12), p<0.001). The number of ultrasound scans performed (aRR 1.25 (95%CI 1.21-1.28), p<0.001) and the proportion of small for gestational age infants detected (aRR 1.59 (95%CI 1.32-1.92), p<0.001) also increased. Organisations reporting higher levels of implementation had improvements in process measures in all elements of the care bundle. An economic analysis estimated the cost of implementing the care bundle at ~£140 per birth. However, neither the costs nor changes in outcomes could be definitively attributed to implementation of the SBL care bundle. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of the SBL care bundle increased over time in the majority of sites. Implementation was associated with improvements in process outcomes. The reduction in stillbirth rates in participating sites exceeded that reported nationally in the same timeframe. The intervention should be refined to identify women who are most likely to benefit and minimise unwarranted intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered on (NCT03231007); www.clinicaltrials.gov.

Value-based care in obstetrics: comparison between vaginal birth and caesarean section.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare costs have substantially increased in recent years, threatening the population health. Obstetric care is a significant contributor to this scenario since it represents 20% of healthcare. The rate of cesarean sections (C-sections) has escalated worldwide. Evidence shows that cesarean delivery is not only more expensive, but it is also linked to poorer maternal and neonatal outcomes. This study assesses which type of delivery is associated with a higher healthcare value in low-risk pregnancies. RESULTS: A total of 9345 deliveries were analyzed. The C-section group had significantly worse rates of breastfeeding in the first hour after delivery (92.57% vs 88.43%, p < 0.001), a higher rate of intensive unit care (ICU) admission both for the mother and the newborn (0.8% vs 0.3%, p = 0.001; 6.7% vs 4.5%, p = 0.0078 respectively), and a higher average cost of hospitalization (BRL14,342.04 vs BRL12,230.03 considering mothers and babies). CONCLUSION: Cesarean deliveries in low-risk pregnancies were associated with a lower value delivery because in addition to being more expensive, they had worse perinatal outcomes.

Comparison of Childbirth Delivery Outcomes and Costs of Care Between Women Experiencing vs Not Experiencing Homelessness.

Importance: Women and families constitute the fastest-growing segments of the homeless population. However, there is limited evidence on whether women experiencing homelessness have poorer childbirth delivery outcomes and higher costs of care compared with women not experiencing homelessness. Objective: To compare childbirth delivery outcomes and costs of care between pregnant women experiencing homelessness vs those not experiencing homelessness. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study included 15 029 pregnant women experiencing homelessness and 308 242 pregnant women not experiencing homelessness who had a delivery hospitalization in 2014. The study used statewide databases that included all hospital admissions in 3 states (ie, Florida, Massachusetts, and New York). Delivery outcomes and delivery-associated costs were compared between pregnant women experiencing homelessness and those not experiencing homelessness cared for at the same hospital (analyzed using the overlap propensity-score weighting method and multivariable regression models with hospital fixed effects). The Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate procedure was used to account for multiple comparisons. Data were analyzed from January 2020 through May 2020. Exposure: Housing status at delivery hospitalization. Main Outcomes and Measures: Outcome variables included obstetric complications (ie, antepartum hemorrhage, placental abnormalities, premature rupture of the membranes, preterm labor, and postpartum hemorrhage), neonatal complications (ie, fetal distress, fetal growth restriction, and stillbirth), delivery method (ie, cesarean delivery), and delivery-associated costs. Results: Among 15 029 pregnant women experiencing homelessness (mean [SD] age, 28.5 [5.9] years) compared with 308 242 pregnant women not experiencing homelessness (mean [SD] age, 29.4 [5.8] years) within the same hospital, those experiencing homelessness were more likely to experience preterm labor (adjusted probability, 10.5% vs 6.7%; adjusted risk difference [aRD], 3.8%; 95% CI, 1.2%-6.5%; adjusted P = .03) and had higher delivery-associated costs (adjusted costs, $6306 vs $5888; aRD, $417; 95% CI, $156-$680; adjusted P = .02) compared with women not experiencing homelessness. Those experiencing homelessness also had a higher probability of placental abnormalities (adjusted probability, 4.0% vs 2.0%; aRD, 1.9%; 95% CI, 0.4%-3.5%; adjusted P = .053), although this difference was not statistically significant. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found that women experiencing homelessness, compared with those not experiencing homelessness, who had a delivery and were admitted to the same hospital were more likely to experience preterm labor and incurred higher delivery-associated costs. These findings suggest wide disparities in delivery-associated outcomes between women experiencing homelessness and those not experiencing homelessness in the US. The findings highlight the importance for health care professionals to actively screen pregnant women for homelessness during prenatal care visits and coordinate their care with community health programs and social housing programs to make sure their health care needs are met.

Caesarean section rate in Nigeria between 2013 and 2018 by obstetric risk and socio-economic status.

OBJECTIVES: Caesarean section (CS) can be life-saving for both mother and child, but in Nigeria the CS rate remains low, at 2.7% of births. We aimed to estimate the rate of CS and early neonatal mortality in Nigeria according to obstetric risk and socio-economic background and to identify factors associated with CS. METHODS: We used the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, encompassing 33 924 live births within the last 5 years, to estimate the CS rate and early neonatal mortality rate (ENMR) by obstetric risk group, informed by the Robson classification. The CS rate and ENMR were assessed within each Robson group and stratified by socio-economic background. Logistic regression analyses were used to explore determinants of CS. RESULTS: Almost three-quarters (72.4%) of all births were to multiparous women, with a singleton baby of normal birthweight, thus a low-risk group similar to Robson 3, and with a CS rate of 1.0%. CS rates in the two high-risk groups (multiple pregnancy and preterm/low birthweight) were low, 7.1% (95% CI: 5.2-9.7) and 1.8 % (95% CI: 1.4-2.4), respectively. The ENMR was particularly high for multiple pregnancy (175 per 1000 live births; 95% CI: 131-230). Greater number of antenatal visits, unwanted pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, household wealth, maternal education, Christians/Others versus Muslims and referral during childbirth were positively associated with CS. CONCLUSION: Inequitable access to CS is not limited to socio-economic determinants, but also related to obstetric risk factors, calling for increased efforts to improve access to CS for high-risk pregnancies.

Factors associated with child delivery expenditure during the transition to the national implementation of the two-child policy in China.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to analyze the status of birthrates and the characteristics of child delivery expenditure under the Chinese two-child policy's transition period. We evaluated the socioeconomic factors associated with child delivery and provide evidence for decisions relating to health support for childbirth. METHODS: Child delivery expense data were obtained from 2015 to 2017 in Dalian, China. A total of 13,535 obstetric records were enrolled using stratified random sampling and the proportional probability to size method. First, we calculated the current curative expenditure of child delivery and health financing in childbirth costs based on the System of Health Accounts 2011 (SHA 2011). Second, univariate analysis of variance and generalized linear modeling were performed to examine factors associated with child delivery expenditure. Third, we classified the included hospitals into the county, district, and municipal hospitals and compared maternal characteristics between these categories. RESULTS: Overall, out-of-pocket payments accounted for more than 35% of the total expenditure on child delivery. Median (interquartile range) delivery expenditure at the county and district level hospitals [county-level: 5128.50 (3311.75-5769.00) CNY; district-level: 4064.00 (2824.00-6599.00) CNY] was higher than that at the municipal level hospitals: 3824.50 (2096.50-5908.00) CNY. The increase of child delivery expenditure was associated with an increased ratio of reimbursement, admissions to county and district level hospitals, cesarean sections, and length of stay, as well as a decline in average maternal age (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Health financing for childbirth expenditure was not rational during the transition period of the family planning policy in China. Higher delivery expenditure at county and district level hospitals may indicate variations in medical professionalism. Poorly managed hospitalization expenditure and/or nonstandard medical charges for childbirth, all of which may require the development of appropriate public health policies to regulate such emerging phenomena.

Utilization cost of maternity services for childbirth among pregnant women with coronavirus disease 2019 in Nigeria's epicenter.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate utilization costs of spontaneous vaginal delivery (SVD) and cesarean delivery (CD) for pregnant women with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) at the largest teaching hospital in Lagos, the pandemic's epicenter in Nigeria. METHODS: We collected facility-based and household costs of all nine pregnant women with COVID-19 managed at the hospital. We compared their mean facility-based costs with those paid by pregnant women pre-COVID-19, identifying cost-drivers. We also estimated what would have been paid without subsidies, testing assumptions with a sensitivity analysis. RESULTS: Total utilization costs ranged from US $494 for SVD with mild COVID-19 to US $4553 for emergency CD with severe COVID-19. Though 32%-66% of facility-based cost were subsidized, costs of SVD and CD during the pandemic have doubled and tripled, respectively, compared with those paid pre-COVID-19. Of the facility-based costs, cost of personal protective equipment was the major cost-driver (50%). Oxygen was the major driver for women with severe COVID-19 (48%). Excluding treatment costs for COVID-19, mean facility-based costs were US $228 (SVD) and US $948 (CD). CONCLUSION: Despite cost exemptions and donations, utilization costs remain prohibitive. Regulation of personal protective equipment and medical oxygen supply chains and expansion of advocacy for health insurance enrollments are needed in order to minimize catastrophic health expenditure.

Rationalisation of the caesarean section rate in a tertiary referral hospital using the Robson classification.

The aim of this study was to implement the Robson Ten Groups Classification System (RTGCS) to identify the main contributors to the caesarean section (CS) rate and to evaluate whether the introduction of a plan of obstetrical interventions reduced this rate. An observational retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted during two time periods at Alicante University General Hospital. In the pre-implementation period (2009-2012), RTGCS was applied to identify the main groups contributing to the overall CS rate. In the post-implementation period (2013-2017), RTGCS was applied again to identify changing trends in CS rates. In all, 11,034 deliveries during the pre-intervention period and 11,453 during the post-intervention period were analysed. The overall CS rate was 23.9% and 20.9%, respectively. There were no changes in perinatal outcomes. In the post-intervention period, there was a significant decrease of the CS rate in the groups of targeted interventions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8B.Impact statementWhat is already known on this subject? High CS rates are becoming a public health problem because of risks, costs, excessive medicalisation, and abuse of resources. RTGCS provides a framework for auditing and analysing CS rates.What do the results of this study add? RTGCS can identify the groups that have the greatest impact on the CS rate and monitor changes in it consequent to policy changes.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice? The introduction of a strategic plan with evidence-based clinical interventions may have a greater effect on the CS rate than other features justifying the increase in the incidence of CS.

Economic evaluation of elective cesarean versus vaginal delivery on cost of future pelvic floor disorders in the United States.

AIM: To analyze the cost impact of cesarean versus vaginal delivery in the United States on the development of stress urinary incontinence (SUI) and pelvic organ prolapse (POP). METHODS: We compared average cost of delivery method to the lifetime risk and cost of pelvic floor disorders (PFDs) in women < 65 years. Costs of maternal care, obtained from the MarketScan® database, included those incurred at delivery and 3 months post-partum. Future costs of PFDs included those incurred after delivery up to 65 years. Previously reported data on the prevalence of POP and SUI following cesarean and vaginal delivery was used to calculate attributable risk. An incremental cost of illness model was used to estimate costs for SUI. Direct surgical and ambulatory care costs were used to determine cost of POP. RESULTS: Average estimated cost was $7089 for vaginal delivery and $9905 for cesarean delivery. The absolute risks for SUI and POP were estimated as 7% and 5%, respectively, following cesarean delivery, and 13% and 14%, respectively, following vaginal delivery. For SUI, average direct cost was $5642, indirect cost was $4208, and personal cost was $750. Average direct cost of POP surgery was $4658, and nonsurgical cost was $2220. The potential savings for reduced prevalence of SUI and POP in women who underwent cesarean delivery is estimated at $1255, but they incur an additional $2816 maternal care cost over vaginal delivery. CONCLUSIONS: Although elective cesarean is associated with reduced prevalence of PFDs, the increased initial cost of cesarean delivery does not offset future cost savings.

Costing of Cesarean Sections in a Government and a Non-Governmental Hospital in Cambodia-A Prerequisite for Efficient and Fair Comprehensive Obstetric Care.

Knowing the cost of health care services is a prerequisite for evidence-based management and decision making. However, only limited costing data is available in many low- and middle-income countries. With a substantially increasing number of facility-based births in Cambodia, costing data for efficient and fair resource allocation is required. This paper evaluates the costs for cesarean section (CS) at a public and a Non-Governmental (NGO) hospital in Cambodia in the year 2018. We performed a full and a marginal cost analysis, i.e., we developed a cost function and calculated the respective unit costs from the provider's perspective. We distinguished fixed, step-fixed, and variable costs and followed an activity-based costing approach. The processes were determined by personal observation of CS-patients and all procedures; the resource consumption was calculated based on the existing accounting documentation, observations, and time-studies. Afterwards, we did a comparative analysis between the two hospitals and performed a sensitivity analysis, i.e., parameters were changed to cater for uncertainty. The public hospital performed 54 monthly CS with an average length of stay (ALOS) of 7.4 days, compared to 18 monthly CS with an ALOS of 3.4 days at the NGO hospital. Staff members at the NGO hospital invest more time per patient. The cost per CS at the current patient numbers is US$470.03 at the public and US$683.23 at the NGO hospital. However, the unit cost at the NGO hospital would be less than at the public hospital if the patient numbers were the same. The study provides detailed costing data to inform decisionmakers and can be seen as a steppingstone for further costing exercises.

Assessment of Variation in Cesarean Delivery Rates Between Public and Private Health Facilities in India From 2005 to 2016.

Importance: The rates of cesarean deliveries have more than doubled in India, from 8% of deliveries in 2005 to 17% of deliveries in 2016. The World Health Organization recommends that cesarean deliveries should not exceed 10% to 15% of all deliveries in any country. An understanding of the association of private and public facilities with the increase in cesarean delivery rates in India is needed. Objective: To assess the association of public vs private sector health care facilities with cesarean delivery rates in India and to estimate the potential cost savings if private sector facilities followed World Health Organization recommendation for cesarean deliveries. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study used institutional delivery data from the representative National Family Health Survey (NFHS) in India, including data from the NFHS-1 (1992-1993), the NFHS-3 (2005-2006), and the NFHS-4 (2015-2016). The NFHS-3 and NFHS-4 provided data on 22 647 deliveries and 195 366 deliveries, respectively. The NHFS-4 was the first survey to provide data on out-of-pocket expenditures for delivery by facility type, allowing for a comparison of cesarean deliveries and costs between public and private facilities. The primary sample comprised all pregnant women who delivered infants in public and private institutional facilities in India and who were included the NFHS-3 and the NFHS-4; data on pregnant women who were included in the NFHS-1 were used for comparison. The study's findings were analyzed through geographic mapping, data tabulation, funnel plots, multivariate logistic regression analyses, and potential cost-savings scenario analyses. Data were analyzed from June to December 2019. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcome was the rate of cesarean deliveries by facility type (public vs private) and by participant socioeconomic, demographic, and health characteristics. Secondary outcomes were the potential number of avoidable cesarean deliveries and the potential cost savings if private sector facilities followed the World Health Organization recommendations for cesarean deliveries. Results: In the NFHS-3, 22 610 total births occurred at institutional facilities. Of those, 2178 births (15.2%) were cesarean deliveries in public facilities, and 3200 births (27.9%) were cesarean deliveries in private facilities. Of 195 366 total institutional births in the NFHS-4, 15 165 births (11.9%) were cesarean deliveries in public facilities, and 20 506 births (40.9%) were cesarean deliveries in private facilities. The cesarean delivery rate in public health facilities increased from 7.2% in the NFHS-1 to 11.9% in the NFHS-4, whereas in private health facilities, the rate increased from 12.3% to 40.9% during the same period. A substantial increase was found in cesarean delivery rates between the NFHS-3 (2005-2006) and the NFHS-4 (2015-2016), with 22 states exceeding the World Health Organization's upper threshold of 15% in the NFHS-4. The odds ratio for cesarean deliveries in private facilities compared with public facilities increased from 1.62 (95% CI, 1.49-1.76) in the NFHS-3 to 4.17 (95% CI, 4.04-4.30) in the NFHS-4. The number of avoidable cesarean deliveries would have been 1.83 million, with a potential cost savings of $320.60 million, if private sector facilities in India had followed the 15% threshold for cesarean delivery rates recommended by the World Health Organization. Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, private sector health facilities were associated with a substantial increase in cesarean deliveries in India. Further research is needed to assess the factors underlying the increase in cesarean deliveries in private sector facilities.

Economic implications of reducing caesarean section rates - Analysis of two health systems.

Caesarean section (CS) rates throughout Europe have risen significantly over the last two decades. As well as being an important clinical issue, these changes in mode of birth may have substantial resource implications. Policy initiatives to curb this rise have had to contend with the multiplier effect of women who had a CS for their first birth having a greater likelihood of requiring one during subsequent births, thus making it difficult to decrease CS rates in the short term. Our study examines the long-term resource implications of reducing CS rates among first-time mothers, as well as improving rates of vaginal birth after caesarean section (VBAC), among an annual cohort of women over the course of their most active childbearing years (18 to 44 years) in two public health systems in Europe. We found that the economic benefit of improvements in these two outcomes is considerable, with the net present value of the savings associated with a five-percentage-point change in nulliparous CS rates and VBAC rates being €1.1million and £9.8million per annual cohort of 18-year-olds in Ireland and England/Wales, respectively. Reductions in CS rates among first-time mothers are associated with a greater payoff than comparable increases in VBAC rates. The net present value of achieving CS rates comparable to those currently observed in the best performing Scandinavian countries was €3.5M and £23.0M per annual cohort in Ireland and England/Wales, respectively.

Preeclampsia in Switzerland: a cost analysis in two hospitals.

Aim: Preeclampsia is a serious complication of pregnancy that occurs in approximately 2.3% of all pregnancies in Switzerland. The aim of this study was to determine inpatient costs based on actual services in suspected and confirmed cases of preeclampsia in two Swiss hospitals (University Hospital Basel, Lucerne Cantonal Hospital) for the year 2016.Methods: Costs for patients with suspected or diagnosed preeclampsia were determined based on the databases of the finance and controlling departments. The cases were identified according to ICD-10 codes and were divided into three main categories: (1) patients with suspected preeclampsia who were discharged without delivering; (2) patients with diagnosed preeclampsia followed by vaginal induction; (3) patients with diagnosed preeclampsia followed by cesarean delivery.Results: A total of 301 cases were included in the analysis, of which 36 (12%) were hospitalized with suspected preeclampsia and discharged after a few days without delivering. Costs for cases of suspected preeclampsia were the lowest, averaging CHF 7,159/EUR 6,658 (95% CI: CHF 5,361/EUR 4,986; CHF 8,958/EUR 8,331), followed by CHF 12,124/EUR 11,275 (95% CI: CHF 10,401/EUR 9,673; CHF 13,950/EUR 12,974) for cases of preeclampsia with vaginal delivery, and CHF 19,352/EUR 17,997 (95% CI: CHF 17,342/EUR 16,128; CHF 21,507/EUR 20,002) for preeclampsia with cesarean section. Overall medical costs were CHF 4.7 (EUR 4.4) million. In all patient groups, the actual patient costs exceeded the DRG revenue that inpatient care providers receive from payers for providing services. The budget deficit was seen in both hospitals, although the magnitude of the deficit was different.Limitation and conclusion: This is the first study to analyze costs for preeclampsia in Switzerland. It would be desirable if this cost analysis was to be performed in other hospitals in order to achieve greater representativity for Switzerland.

[A scoping review of the payment mechanisms in childbirth of country members and non-members of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development]. / Revisión sistemática exploratoria de los mecanismos de pago en la atención del parto en países pertenecientes y no pertenecientes a la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico.

Introduction: Payment mechanisms serve to put into operation the function of purchasing in health. Payment mechanisms impact the decisions that healthcare providers make. Given this, we are interested in knowing how they affect the generalized increase of C-section rates globally. Objective: The objective of this review is to describe existing payment mechanisms for childbirth in countries members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and non-members. Methods: We conducted a scoping review following the five methodological steps of the Joanna Briggs Institute. The search was conducted by researchers independently, achieving inter-reliability among raters (kappa index, 0.96). We searched electronic databases, grey literature, and governmental and non-governmental websites. We screened on three levels and included documents published in the last ten years, in English and Spanish. Results were analyzed considering the function of the reimbursement mechanism and its effects on providers, payers, and beneficiaries. Results: Evidence from 34 countries was obtained (50% OECD members). Sixty-four percent of countries report the use of more than one payment mechanism for childbirth. Diagnosis-Related Groups (47.6%), Pay-for-performance (23.3%), Fee-for-service (16.6%) and Fixed-prospective systems (13.3%) are among the most frequently used mechanisms. Conclusion: Countries use payment mechanism architecture to improve maternal-perinatal health indicators. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the best combination of mechanisms that improve the provision of health care and welfare of the population in the field of sexual and reproductive health.

Introducción: Los mecanismos de pago corresponden a la operacionalización de la función de compra en salud, incentivando comportamientos en los proveedores de servicios sanitarios. Resulta pertinente preguntarse cómo afectan la vía de resolución del parto, considerando el aumento generalizado en índices de cesárea a nivel global. Objetivo: Describir los mecanismos de pago existentes para la atención del parto en países miembros y no miembros de la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico. Métodos: Revisión sistemática exploratoria (scoping review). Se adoptaron los cinco pasos metodológicos del Joanna Briggs Institute. La búsqueda se realizó por las investigadoras de forma independiente, logrando la confiabilidad interevaluador (κ 0,96) en bases de datos electrónicas, otras fuentes de información, sitios web gubernamentales y no gubernamentales. Se tamizó en tres niveles, considerando literatura no mayor a 10 años de anti-güedad, idioma inglés y español. Se analizaron los resultados considerando el funcionamiento del mecanismo de pago y sus efectos en prestado-res, seguros y beneficiarias. Resultados: Se obtuvo evidencia de 34 países (50% pertenecientes a la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico). El 64% con uso de más de un mecanismo de pago para el parto. Entre los mecanismos más utilizados están: grupos relacionados de diagnósticos (47,6%), pago por resultados (23,3%), pago por servicios (16,6%) y pago fijo prospectivo (13,3%). Conclusión: Los países recurren a la arquitectura de los mecanismos de pago para mejorar indicadores en salud materno-perinatales. Es necesario explorar cuál sería la mejor combinación de mecanismos que mejora la provisión de atenciones de salud y bienestar de la población, en el campo de la salud sexual y reproductiva.